Masculinity

What is Masculinity?

Masculinity is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles associated with boys and men. Although masculinity is socially constructed, research indicates that some behaviors considered masculine are biologically influenced.1 

Masculinity is socially constructed and cultural masculine norms change over time, although to what extent any individual conforms to socially constructed masculine norms is influenced by a combination of biology and social experiences.

Masculinity Over Time

Over time, what is considered masculine changes. Persian soldier men wore high heels as far back as the 9th century. In 18th century England men wore wigs and lots of makeup. And King Louis XIV of France was known for wearing red high heels with sparkling jewels on them. This was all considered masculine dress in those time periods.

Masculinity Today

 There is no single, one way to be a boy or man. Many masculinities exist. Both masculinity and femininity exist in all of us. But sociologists have developed many ways of understanding the social constructions of masculinity that exist in the world and they way these impact all of us.

Hegemonic masculinity, a term coined by sociologist, Raewyn Connell, describes the dominant form of masculinity. Hegemonic masculinity is traditional masculinity in which men are competitive, dominant, emotionally inexpressive, homophobic, and misogynistic. The idealised man under this construction is white, heterosexual, educated, successful in career, attractive, young, married, a father, strong, and engages in sports. Hegemonic masculinity is discouraged in women, as this is the model which encourages men to dominate and women to be subordinate.

Under this theory, there are other forms of masculinity that fall below hegemonic masculinity in rank and social esteem. These include older, unemployed or othermen who don’t embody all elements of the idealized hegemonic man, but do not actively defy hegemonic masculine ideals (complicit masculinities); gay men, stay-at-home-fathers who don’t conform to the hegemonic ideal (subordinate masculinities); and marginalised masculinities such as men living with disabilities and men of colour.    

Toxic Masculinity

Toxic masculinity is the idea that it is harmful to everyone when men strive to meet the hegemonic masculine ideals of dominance, emotional repression, homophobia/misogyny, and lack of care for others. Toxic masculinity is often misunderstood and interpreted to mean that either all men/masculinity is toxic, or that hegemonic men are only toxic to others.

In actuality, the idea of toxic masculinity does not aim to vilify men. Instead it spotlights the toxic elements of a particular social construction of masculinity, such as normalised violence, discrimination, entitlement, sexual misconduct/assault/non-consent, and general power over others.

Who is toxic masculinity toxic to?

Hegemonic masculinity inevitably breeds male violence against others. But that violence can also be turned inward towards the self. Higher rates of suicide, addiction and physical health problems in men have been linked to the toxic effects of hegemonic masculinity on men through lack of care for self and others, competitiveness, and the need to hide emotions.

So toxic masculinity is not only referring to toxic impacts on others, but also to the toxicity of hegemonic masculinity for the men embodying it.

Performative Masculinity: Homophobia, Misogyny, Violence & Shame

Fragile masculinity refers to the difficulty in meeting all the standards of hegemonic masculinity. The more common understanding is that it relates to the emotional difficulties men face when their ‘manliness’ is threatened. This is a real consequence of fragile masculinity, but it is important not to use this to demonize men and instead look at the whole impact of the social construction of masculinity on men and others. Many boys and men are socialised to meet the criteria of hegemonic masculinity. This leaves them vulnerable to many pathologies that are toxic to both themselves and others.

Hegemonic masculinity dictates that the ideal man is the opposite of femininity or gayness. In trying to prove their masculinity, many boys and men resort to performative hetero masculinity, or displaying homophobia and misogyny, as a way of distancing themselves from all things feminine. This can be particularly toxic for men who are attracted to men, but feel tremendous pressure to live up to the straight hegemonic male standard.

Performative male violence is another way hegemonic masculinity is toxic and oppressive to both men and others. Men are more likely than women to be both the perpetrators and victims of violence. Aggression is the most socially acceptable way for men to display emotion under hegemonic masculinity. It is also a way for men to display their masculinity and ability to dominate. Violence becomes a part of performative masculinity that causes both psychological and physical harm to both men and those they impact.

Anger in men can also be linked to male shame. Shame develops in men because under hegemonic masculinity, they are expected to be able to handle everything they experience. This is an impossible expectation, but when men are socialised to aspire to hegemonic masculinity, they can develop a pathological need to meet this expectation, leading to deep shame when they struggle, as well as refusal to seek help when needed.

Masculinity in Crisis

 The phrase ‘masculinity in crisis’ refers to a theory that men are struggling to find what masculinity means today. More and more men are actively trying to distance themselves from traditional hegemonic masculinity and find healthier more inclusive ways of expressing their masculinity. But they have been socialised under hegemonic masculinity and trying to mediate this conflict leaves many men, both trying to meet the old standards of masculinity and adapt to a changing environment in which those ideals are no longer valued.

Other Masculinities

As societal understandings of hegemonic masculinity grow, more and more people are promoting alternate forms of masculinity in the hope that if men begin to express emotions and connect more intimately with others, there will be less toxicity to men and others.

Inclusive Masculinities refers to a phenomenon in which men and boys are rejecting homophobia and misogyny to embrace more inclusive forms of masculinity. Inclusive masculinities allow all men to demonstrate emotional intimacy with other men without stigma (‘bromance’).

One form of inclusive masculinity is tender masculinity, a term coined by journalist Terra Loire. Tender masculinity is present when a man is invested in all his relationships (not just sexual/romantic ones), he is self-aware, expresses emotions, committed to personal growth, respects boundaries, and is comfortable with intimacy with other men.

Male feminists do not always embody inclusive masculinities. It is possible to intellectually challenge patriarchy, without actually shifting behaviours away from toxic hegemonic masculinity.  

Backlash Hegemonic Masculinity: Lads, Pickup Artists, MRA’s

While many people are shifting away from hegemonic masculinity, some have seen the increase in inclusive masculinities and terms such as toxic masculinity as an assault on men and masculinity. This has caused a backlash of new forms of hegemonic masculinity, such as lad culture, pickup artists, and men’s rights activists (MRA’s).

MRA’s and other backlash hegemonic masculinities to be addressed in a separate resource!
 

Key Terms Review:

Hegemonic masculinity: the dominant form of masculinity within a society, specifically heterosexual, middle class, white men. Hegemonic masculinity, the celebrated and idealized form of masculinity in Western culture, is only achieved by men who possess physical strength and suppress their emotions.

Complicit masculinities: forms of masculinity (under the pyramid of hegemonic masculinity) that do not challenge hegemonic masculinity.

Subordinate masculinities: under the pyramid of hegemonic masculinity, subordinate masculinity refers to acting in or being in opposition to hegemonic masculinity, such as being effeminate or overly emotional.

Marginalised masculinities: under the pyramid of hegemonic masculinity, marginalised masculinity refers to a lack of characteristics that allow one to conform to hegemonic masculinity, like being non-white.

Toxic masculinity: a set of attitudes and ways of behaving stereotypically associated with or expected of men, regarded as having a negative impact on men and on society as a whole.

Male violence: The term for the phenomenon in which men are significantly more likely than women to be the perpetrators of violence and are also more likely than women to be the victims of violence. Men are also more likely to commit suicide than women, a statistic that has been linked to male violence turned inward.  

Fragile Masculinity: refers to anxiety felt by men who believe they are falling short of cultural standards of manhood. Fragile masculinity can motivate compensatory attitudes/behaviours meant to restore the threatened status of 'real' manhood.

Performative hetero masculinity: Gender performativity is when gender expression and even identity become compulsory reiterations of socially constructed gender norms. Performative hetero masculinity happens when boys or men feel pressure to strive for hegemonic masculinity, and try to prove their masculinity by embracing homophobia and misogyny, regardless of whether they really hold those beliefs.  

Male Shame: the tendency for men to feel high levels of shame because of masculine gender norms. Men and boys are shamed into hiding healthy emotional expression. This creates harmful mental and behavioural impacts such as rage (and sometimes violence), repression, isolation, low sense of self-worth. These symptoms in turn create more shame because help seeking and expressing emotions go against masculine norms.   

Masculinity in Crisis: the idea that men today are trapped between trying to meet the old standards of masculinity and also trying to adapt to a changing environment in which those ideals are no longer valued.

Inclusive Masculinity:  an approach to thinking about masculinity in the context of social changes that have undermined traditional hegemonic masculinity and its associated homophobia, which each have driven men to avoid certain behaviours in order to avoid being publicly perceived as gay; it holds that there are increasingly societal spaces in which men no longer need to behave in hypermasculine ways in order to be accepted. When this occurs, men can engage in a variety of previously feminine practices without the fear of being perceived gay or weak.

Tender Masculinity: An approach to masculinity that values the opposite traits of hegemonic masculinity: men/boys who are vulnerable, who are OK with failing so long as they learn from their mistakes, who love their friends, and who value the women in their lives regardless of whether or not they are sexual partners.

Male Feminists: Men who publicly support feminist sociological and political ideals and action. While, it is of course, encouraged that everyone support gender equality, it’s important to note that support of progressive action in the world is not always congruous with changes in behaviour. It is possible for men to embody hegemonic, complicit, or toxic forms of masculinity whilst outwardly espousing feminism, gender equality and other progressive ideals.